# The Universe of Discourse

Mon, 28 Aug 2017

This is a collection of leftover miscellanea about twenty-four puzzles. In case you forgot what that is:

The puzzle «4 6 7 9 ⇒ 24» means that one should take the numbers 4, 6, 7, and 9, and combine them with the usual arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, to make the number 24. In this case the unique solution is $$6\times\frac{7 + 9}{4}.$$ When the target number is 24, as it often is, we omit it and just write «4 6 7 9».

Prior articles on this topic:

## How many puzzles have solutions?

For each value of !!T!!, there are 715 puzzles «a b c d ⇒ T». (I discussed this digression in two more earlier articles: [1] [2].) When the target !!T = 24!!, 466 of the 715 puzzles have solutions. Is this typical? Many solutions of «a b c d» puzzles end with a multiplication of 6 and 4, or of 8 and 3, or sometimes of 12 and 2—so many that one quickly learns to look for these types of solutions right away. When !!T=23!!, there won't be any solutions of this type, and we might expect that relatively few puzzles with prime targets have solutions.

This turns out to be the case:

The x-axis is the target number !!T!!, with 0 at the left, 300 at right, and vertical guide lines every 25. The y axis is the number of solvable puzzles out of the maximum possible of 715, with 0 at the bottom, 715 at the top, and horizontal guide lines every 100.

Dots representing prime number targets are colored black. Dots for numbers with two prime factors (4, 6, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 22, etc.) are red; dots with three, four, five, six, and seven prime factors are orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple respectively.

Two countervailing trends are obvious: Puzzles with smaller targets have more solutions, and puzzles with highly-composite targets have more solutions. No target number larger than 24 has as many as 466 solvable puzzles.

These are only trends, not hard rules. For example, there are 156 solvable puzzles with the target 126 (4 prime factors) but only 93 with target 128 (7 prime factors). Why? (I don't know. Maybe because there is some correlation with the number of different prime factors? But 72, 144, and 216 have many solutions, and only two different prime factors.)

The smallest target you can't hit is 417. The following numbers 418 and 419 are also impossible. But there are 8 sets of four digits that can be used to make 416 and 23 sets that can be used to make 420. The largest target that can be hit is obviously !!6561 = 9⁴!!; the largest target with two solutions is !!2916 = 4·9·9·9 = 6·6·9·9!!.

There is a lot more to discover here. For example, from looking at the chart, it seems that the locally-best target numbers often have the form !!2^n3^m!!. What would we see if we colored the dots according to their largest prime factor instead of according to their number of prime factors? (I tried doing this, and it didn't look like much, but maybe it could have been done better.)

### Making zero

As the chart shows, 705 of the 715 puzzles of the type «a b c d ⇒ 0», are solvable. This suggests an interesting inverse puzzle that Toph and I enjoyed: find four digits !!a,b,c, d!! that cannot be used to make zero. (The answers).

## Identifying interesting or difficult problems

(Caution: this section contains spoilers for many of the most interesting puzzles.)

I spent quite a while trying to get the computer to rank puzzles by difficulty, with indifferent success.

### Fractions

Seven puzzles require the use of fractions. One of these is the notorious «3 3 8 8» that I mentioned before. This is probably the single hardest of this type. The other six are:

    «1 3 4 6»
«1 4 5 6»
«1 5 5 5»
«1 6 6 8»
«3 3 7 7»
«4 4 7 7»


«1 5 5 5» is somewhat easier than the others, but they all follow pretty much the same pattern. The last two are pleasantly symmetrical.

### Negative numbers

No puzzles require the use of negative intermediate values. This surprised me at first, but it is not hard to see why. Subexpressions with negative intermediate values can always be rewritten to have positive intermediate values instead.

For instance, !!3 × (9 + (3 - 4))!! can be rewritten as !!3 × (9 - (4 - 3))!! and !!(5 - 8)×(1 -9)!! can be rewritten as !!(8 - 5)×(9 -1)!!.

### A digression about tree shapes

In one of the earlier articles I asserted that there are only two possible shapes for the expression trees of a puzzle solution:

 Form A Form B

(Pink square nodes contain operators and green round nodes contain numbers.)

Lindsey Kuper pointed out that there are five possible shapes, not two. Of course, I was aware of this (it is a Catalan number), so what did I mean when I said there were only two? It's because I had the idea that any tree that wasn't already in one of those two forms could be put into form A by using transformations like the ones in the previous section.

For example, the expression !!(4×((1+2)÷3))!! isn't in either form, but we can commute the × to get the equivalent !!((1+2)÷3)×4!!, which has form A. Sometimes one uses the associative laws, for example to turn !!a ÷ (b × c)!! into !!(a ÷ b) ÷ c!!.

But I was mistaken; not every expression can be put into either of these forms. The expression !!(8×(9-(2·3))!! is an example.

### Unusual intermediate values

The most interesting thing I tried was to look for puzzles whose solutions require unusual intermediate numbers.

For example, the puzzle «3 4 4 4» looks easy (the other puzzles with just 3s and 4s are all pretty easy) but it is rather tricky because its only solution goes through the unusual intermediate number 28: !!4 × (3 + 4) - 4!!.

I ranked puzzles as follows: each possible intermediate number appears in a certain number of puzzle solutions; this is the score for that intermediate number. (Lower scores are better, because they represent rarer intermediate numbers.) The score for a single expression is the score of its rarest intermediate value. So for example !!4 × (3 + 4) - 4!! has the intermediate values 7 and 28. 7 is extremely common, and 28 is quite unusual, appearing in only 151 solution expressions, so !!4 × (3 + 4) - 4!! receives a fairly low score of 151 because of the intermediate 28.

Then each puzzle received a difficulty score which was the score of its easiest solution expression. For example, «2 2 3 8» has two solutions, one (!!(8+3)×2+2!!) involving the quite unusual intermediate value 22, which has a very good score of only 79. But this puzzle doesn't count as difficult because it also admits the obvious solution !!8·3·\frac22!! and this is the solution that gives it its extremely bad score of 1768.

Under this ranking, the best-scoring twenty-four puzzles, and their scores, were:

      «1 2 7 7» 3
* «4 4 7 7» 12
* «1 4 5 6» 13
* «3 3 7 7» 14
* «1 5 5 5» 15
«5 6 6 9» 23
«2 5 7 9» 24
«2 2 5 8» 25
«2 5 8 8» 45
«5 8 8 8» 45
«2 2 2 9» 47
* «1 3 4 6» 59
* «1 6 6 8» 59
«2 4 4 9» 151
«3 4 4 4» 151
* «3 3 8 8» 152
«6 8 8 9» 152
«2 2 2 7» 155
«2 2 5 7» 155
«2 3 7 7» 155
«2 4 7 7» 155
«2 5 5 7» 155
«2 5 7 7» 156
«4 4 8 9» 162


(Something is not quite right here. I think «2 5 7 7» and «2 5 5 7» should have the same score, and I don't know why they don't. But I don't care enough to do it over.)

Most of these are at least a little bit interesting. The seven puzzles that require the use of fractions appear; I have marked them with stars. The top item is «1 2 7 7», whose only solution goes through the extremely rare intermediate number 49. The next items require fractions, and the one after that is «5 6 6 9», which I found difficult. So I think there's some value in this procedure.

But is there enough value? I'm not sure. The last item on the list, «4 4 8 9», goes through the unusual number 36. Nevertheless I don't think it is a hard puzzle.

(I can also imagine that someone might see the answer to «5 6 6 9» right off, but find «4 4 8 9» difficult. The whole exercise is subjective.)

### Solutions with unusual tree shapes

I thought about looking for solutions that involved unusual sequences of operations. Division is much less common than the other three operations.

To get it right, one needs to normalize the form of expressions, so that the shapes !!(a + b) + (c + d)!! and !!a + (b + (c + d))!! aren't counted separately. The Ezpr library can help here. But I didn't go that far because the preliminary results weren't encouraging.

There are very few expressions totaling 24 that have the form !!(a÷b)÷(c÷d)!!. But if someone gives you a puzzle with a solution in that form, then !!(a×d)÷(b×c)!! and !!(a×d) ÷ (b÷c)!! are also solutions, and one or another is usually very easy to see. For example, the puzzle «1 3 8 9» has the solution !!(8÷1)÷(3÷9)!!, which has an unusual form. But this is an easy puzzle; someone with even a little experience will find the solution !!8 × \frac93 × 1!! immediately.

Similarly there are relatively few solutions of the form !!a÷((b-c)÷d)!!, but they can all be transformed into !!a×d÷(b-c)!! which is not usually hard to find. Consider $$\frac 8{\left(\frac{6 - 4}6\right)}.$$ This is pretty weird-looking, but when you're trying to solve it one of the first things you might notice is the 8, and then you would try to turn the rest of the digits into a 3 by solving «4 6 6 ⇒ 3», at which point it wouldn't take long to think of !!\frac6{6-4}!!. Or, coming at it from the other direction, you might see the sixes and start looking for a way to make «4 6 8 ⇒ 4», and it wouldn't take long to think of !!\frac8{6-4}!!.

### Ezpr shape

Ezprs (see previous article) correspond more closely than abstract syntax trees do with our intuitive notion of how expressions ought to work, so looking at the shape of the Ezpr version of a solution might give better results than looking at the shape of the expression tree. For example, one might look at the number of nodes in the Ezpr or the depth of the Ezpr.

When trying to solve one of these puzzles, there are a few things I always try first. After adding up the four numbers, I then look for ways to make !!8·3, 6·4,!! or !!12·2!!; if that doesn't work I start branching out looking for something of the type !!ab\pm c!!.

Suppose we take a list of all solvable puzzles, and remove all the very easy ones: the puzzles where one of the inputs is zero, or where one of the inputs is 1 and there is a solution of the form !!E×1!!.

Then take the remainder and mark them as “easy” if they have solutions of the form !!a+b+c+d, 8·3, 6·4,!! or !!12·2!!. Also eliminate puzzles with solutions of the type !!E + (c - c)!! or !!E×\left(\frac cc\right)!!.

How many are eliminated in this way? Perhaps most? The remaining puzzles ought to have at least intermediate difficulty, and perhaps examining just those will suggest a way to separate them further into two or three ranks of difficulty.

### I give up

But by this time I have solved so many twenty-four puzzles that I am no longer sure which ones are hard and which ones are easy. I suspect that I have seen and tried to solve most of the 466 solvable puzzles; certainly more than half. So my brain is no longer a reliable gauge of which puzzles are hard and which are easy.

Perhaps looking at puzzles with five inputs would work better for me now. These tend to be easy, because you have more to work with. But there are 2002 puzzles and probably some of them are hard.

## Close, but no cigar

What's the closest you can get to 24 without hitting it exactly? The best I could do was !!5·5 - \frac89!!. Then I asked the computer, which confirmed that this is optimal, although I felt foolish when I saw the simpler solutions that are equally good: !!6·4 \pm\frac 19!!.

The paired solutions $$5 × \left(4 + \frac79\right) < 24 < 7 × \left(4 - \frac59\right)$$ are very handsome.

## Phone app

The search program that tells us when a puzzle has solutions is only useful if we can take it with us in the car and ask it about license plates. A phone app is wanted. I built one with Code Studio.

Code Studio is great. It has a nice web interface, and beginners can write programs by dragging blocks around. It looks very much like MIT's scratch project, which is much better-known. But Code Studio is a much better tool than Scratch. In Scratch, once you reach the limits of what it can do, you are stuck, and there is no escape. In Code Studio when you drag around those blocks you are actually writing JavaScript underneath, and you can click a button and see and edit the underlying JavaScript code you have written.

Suppose you need to convert A to 1 and B to 2 and so on. Scratch does not provide an ord function, so with Scratch you are pretty much out of luck; your only choice is to write a 26-way if-else tree, which means dragging around something like 104 stupid blocks. In Code Studio, you can drop down the the JavaScript level and type in ord to use the standard ord function. Then if you go back to blocks, the ord will look like any other built-in function block.

In Scratch, if you want to use a data structure other than an array, you are out of luck, because that is all there is. In Code Studio, you can drop down to the JavaScript level and use or build any data structure available in JavaScript.

In Scratch, if you want to initialize the program with bulk data, say a precomputed table of the solutions of the 466 twenty-four puzzles, you are out of luck. In Code Studio, you can upload a CSV file with up to 1,000 records, which then becomes available to your program as a data structure.

In summary, you spend a lot of your time in Scratch working around the limitations of Scratch, and what you learn doing that is of very limited applicability. Code Studio is real programming and if it doesn't do exactly what you want out of the box, you can get what you want by learning a little more JavaScript, which is likely to be useful in other contexts for a long time to come.

Once you finish your Code Studio app, you can click a button to send the URL to someone via SMS. They can follow the link in their phone's web browser and then use the app.

Code Studio is what Scratch should have been. Check it out.