# The Universe of Discourse

Thu, 11 Oct 2018

Here we have the well-known fmap function:

    fmap :: Functor f => (a -> b) -> f a -> f b


It takes a single function and a (collection of input values / decorated input value / something something input value) and produces a (collection of output values / decorated output value / something something output value).

Yow, that's not going to work. Is there any good terminology for a value of type f a when f is an arbitrary functor? A while back I discussed a similar problem and suggested the term “mote” for a value in a monadic type. I will try calling an f t value a “t parcel and see how that works. So [t], Maybe t, and IO t are all examples of t parcels, in various functors.

Starting over then. Here we have the well-known fmap function:

    fmap :: Functor f => (a -> b) -> f a -> f b


It takes a single function, and an a parcel, and produces a b parcel, by applying the function independently to the a values in the parcel.

Here is a sort of reversed version of fmap that I call pamf:

    pamf :: Functor f => f (a -> b) -> a -> f b


It takes a parcel of functions, and a single input and produces a parcel of outputs, by applying each function in the parcel independently to the single a value. It can be defined in terms of fmap:

    pamf fs a = fmap ($a) fs  So far so good. Now I ask you to predict the type of  pamf fmap  Certainly it should start out with  pamf fmap :: (Functor f, Functor g) => ...  because the pamf and the fmap might be operating in two different functors, right? Indeed, if I compose the functions the other way around, fmap pamf, the type does begin this way; it is:  (Functor f, Functor g) => f (g (a -> b)) -> f (a -> g b)  The f here is the functor in which fmap operates, and the g is the functor in which pamf is operating. In general fmap takes an arbitrary function  a -> b  and lifts it to a new function that operates in the f functor:  f a -> f b  Here it has taken pamf, which is a function  g (a -> b) -> (a -> g b)  and lifted it to a new function that operates in the f functor:  f (g (a -> b)) -> f (a -> g b)  This is complicated but straightforward. Okay, that was fmap pamf. What about pamf fmap though? The computed type is  pamf fmap :: Functor f => f a -> (a -> b) -> f b  and when I saw this I said “What. Where did g go? What happened to g?” Then I paused and for a while and said “… I bet it's that goddamn environment thing again.” Yep, that's what it was. It's the environment functor, always turning up where I don't want it and least expect it, like that one guy we all went to college with. The environment functor, by the way, is yet another one of those things that Haskell ought to have a standard name for, but doesn't. The phrase “the reader monad” is fairly common, but here I only want the functor part of the monad. And people variously say “reader monad”, “environment monad”, and “evaluation monad” to mean the same thing. In this article, it will be the environment functor. Here's what happened. Here are fmap and pamf again:  fmap :: Functor f => (p -> q) -> f p -> f q pamf :: Functor g => g (a -> b) -> a -> g b  The first argument to pamf should be a parcel in the g functor. But fmap is not a parcel, so pamf fmap will be a type error, right? Wrong! If you are committed enough, there is a way to construe any function as a parcel. A function p -> q is a q parcel in the environment functor. Say that g denotes an environment functor. In this functor, a parcel of type g t is a function which consults an “environment” of type e and yields a result of type t. That is, $$g\ t \equiv e \to t.$$ When operating in the environment functor, fmap has the type (a -> b) -> g a -> g b, which is shorthand for (a -> b) -> (e -> a) -> (e -> b). This instance of fmap is defined this way:  fmap f x = \e -> f (x e)  or shorter and more mysteriously  fmap = (.)  which follows by η-reduction, something Haskell enthusiasts never seem to get enough of. In fmap f x, the x isn't the actual value to give to f; instead it's a parcel, as it always is with fmap. In the context of the environment functor, x is a function that consults the environment e and returns an a. The result of fmap f x is a new parcel: it uses x to consult the supplied environment for a value of type a, which it then feeds to f to get the required value of type b. In the application pamf fmap, the left side pamf wants fmap to be a parcel. But it's not a parcel, it's a function. So, type error, right? No! Any function is a parcel if you want it to be, it's a parcel in the environment functor! And fmap is a function:  fmap :: Functor f => (p -> q) -> f p -> f q  so it can be understood as a parcel in the environment functor, where the environment e has type p -> q. Then pamf is operating in this environment functor, so $$g\ t = (p \to q) \to t.$$ A g t parcel is a function that consults an “environment” of type p -> q and somehow produces a t value. (Haskell folks, who are obsessed with currying all the things, will write this as the nearly unreadable g = ((->) (p -> q)).) We wanted pamf to have this type:  pamf :: Functor g => g (a -> b) -> a -> g b  and since Haskell has decided that g must be the environment functor with !!g\ x \equiv (p \to q) \to x!!, this is an abbreviation for:  pamf :: ((p -> q) -> (a -> b)) -> a -> ((p -> q) -> b)  To apply this to fmap, we have to unify the type of pamf's argument, which is (p -> q) -> (a -> b), and the type of fmap, which is (p -> q) -> (f p -> f q). Then !!a\equiv f\ p!! and !!b \equiv f\ q!!, so the result of pamf fmap is  pamf fmap :: Functor f => f p -> ((p -> q) -> f q)  Where did g go? It was specialized to mean the environment functor ((->) (p -> q)), so it's gone. The funny thing about the type of pamf fmap is that it is exactly the type of flip fmap, which is fmap with the order of its two arguments reversed:  (flip fmap) x f ≡ fmap f x  and indeed, by some theorem or other, because the types are identical, the functions themselves must be identical also! (There are some side conditions, all of which hold here.) The two functions pamf fmap and flip fmap are identical. Analogous to the way fmap, restricted to the environment functor, is identical to (.), pamf, when similarly restricted, is exactly flip. You can even see this from its type:  pamf :: ((p -> q) -> (a -> b)) -> a -> ((p -> q) -> b)  Or, cleaning up some superfluous parentheses and inserting some new ones:  pamf :: ((p -> q) -> a -> b) -> (a -> (p -> q) -> b)  And putting !!c = p\to q!!:  pamf :: (c -> a -> b) -> (a -> c -> b) flip :: ( the same )  Honestly, I would have preferred a type error: “Hey, dummy, fmap has the wrong type to be an argument to pamf, which wants a functorial value.” Instead I got “Okay, if you want functions to be a kind of functor I can do that, also wouldn't it be simpler if the universe was two-dimensional and there were only three kinds of quarks? Here you go, no need to thank me!” Maybe someone can explain to me why this is a useful behavior, and then explain why it is so useful that it should happen automatically and implicitly instead of being triggered by some lexical marker like:  newtype Environment e a = Environment (e -> a) instance Functor (Environment e) where fmap f (Environment x) = Environment$ \e -> f (x e)


I mean, seriously, suppose you wrote a + b where b was accidentally a function instead of a number. What if when you did that, instead of a type error, Haskell would silently shift into some restricted domain in which it could implicitly interpret b as a number in some weird way and give you something totally bizarre? Isn't the whole point of Haskell supposed to be that it doesn't implicitly convert things that way?

[ Addendum 20181111: Apparently, everyone else hates it too. ]